Authors
Adam Akullian, Eric Ng’eno , Alastair I. Matheson, Leonard Cosmas, Daniel Macharia, Barry Fields, Godfrey Bigogo, Maina Mugoh, Grace John-Stewart, Judd L. Walson, Jonathan Wakefield, Joel M. Montgomery
Abstract
Background: Enteric fever due to Salmonella Typhi (typhoid fever) occurs in urban areas with poor sanitation. While direct fecal-oral transmission is thought to be the predominant mode of transmission, recent evidence suggests that indirect environmental transmission may also contribute to disease spread.
Methods: Data from a population-based infectious disease surveillance system (28,000 individuals followed biweekly) were used to map the spatial pattern of typhoid fever in Kibera, an urban informal settlement in Nairobi Kenya, between 2010–2011. Spatial modeling was used to test whether variations in topography and accumulation of surface water explain the geographic patterns of risk.
Results: Among children less than ten years of age, risk of typhoid fever was geographically heterogeneous across the study area (p = 0.016) and was positively associated with lower elevation, OR = 1.87, 95% CI (1.36–2.57), p <0.001. In contrast, the risk of typhoid fever did not vary geographically or with elevation among individuals less than 6b ten years of age.
Conclusions: Our results provide evidence of indirect, environmental transmission of typhoid fever among children, a group with high exposure to fecal pathogens in the environment. Spatially targeting sanitation interventions may decrease enteric fever transmission.
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